G.T. Bohmfalk, R.E. Frisbie, W.L. Sterling, R.B. Metzer and A.E. Knutson*
* Respectively, former Extension assistant, integrated pest management coordinator, professor of entomology, Extension cotton specialist and Extension agent-entomology (PM), The Texas A&M University System.
INTRODUCTION
R.E. Frisbie
The management of insect pests is an integral part of an economic production system. It increases producers' profits and reduces the amount of environmental contamination from pesticides. Integrated pest management (IPM) is the integration of all practical pest control methods in as compatible manner as possible to maintain pest populations below the economic threshold. In a cotton production system, IPM includes combining cultural practices--appropriate variety selection, land preparation, planting dates and early stalk destruction -- frequent field scouting; biological control through conservation of natural predators, parasites and pathogens; and selective use of insecticides to keep insect and mite populations below economically damaging levels. This cotton pest management system is designed to keep inputs at a minimum while maintaining or increasing production for maximum profit.
This publication covers the identification, biology, life cycle, evidence of infestation and nature of damage of pests that attack cotton. A special section deals with recognizing predaceous insects and spiders. Crop monitoring (scouting) is stressed as a method of determining the abundance of pests and beneficial insect and spider species. The economic threshold (action level) is related to scouting procedures. Easy-to-use diagnostic keys to aid in recognizing insect damage and identifying eggs and larvae are included.
This publication is a guide to a better understanding of the cotton insect, spider and mite complex. No reference is made to specific control procedures within geographic areas of the state. The Management of Cotton Insects series is designed to provide specific management recommendations by geographic production area. Because of changing needs and constant shifts in research technology, it is recommended that information on scouting techniques, economic thresholds, appropriate pesticide use and specific cultural practices be obtained from the following: http://insects.tamu.edu/extension/publications/index.cfm
E-7 Managing Cotton Insects in the Lower Rio Grande Valley (PDF)
E-6 Managing Cotton Insects in the High Plains, Rolling Plains and Trans Pecos Areas of Texas (PDF)
E-5 Managing Cotton Insects in the Southern, Eastern and Blackland Areas of Texas (PDF)
IDENTIFICATION, BIOLOGY, EVIDENCE OF
INFESTATION AND NATURE OF
DAMAGE
KEY PESTS
G.T. Bohmfalk
Key pests are serious, perennially occurring, persistent pests that dominate
control practices because in the absence of control their populations may cause
severe economic damage. The following key pests vary in their severity and
prominence by geographical location. None are key pests on a statewide basis nor
in every production year.
Boll weevil (Anthonomous grandis grandis Boheman)
Identification. The adult boll weevil is a brown to grayish-brown beetle. The body is covered with short, fine hair, giving it a fuzzy appearance. There is considerable variation in size from slightly more than 1/8 inch to almost ½ inch in length. The boll weevil's snout is approximately half as long as its body. It is slightly curved and has chewing mouthparts on the end. Immature stages are found inside squares and bolls. The boll weevil egg is seldom seen since it is deposited inside a square or boll. The larva is a small, legless grub with a brownish head and chewing mouthparts. This grub varies in size from very small to ½ inch in length. The pupal or "resting" stage of the boll weevil is 3/8 to ½ inch long and cream colored with eyes and an obvious snout.
Biology. The adult boll weevil spends the winter in hibernation, called "diapause," without food and returns to cotton in the early spring the following year. Overwintering quarters usually consist of fence rows, broadleaved plant litter along creek bottoms, ditch banks and other protected, wooded areas near cotton fields. In the spring overwintered boll weevil adults concentrate in early planted fields nearest overwintering habitat where cotton is squaring. Adult boll weevils feed on tender growth in plant terminals if the young cotton does not have squares. In the early season, boll weevils colonize localized spots and do not generally invade the entire field.
The boll weevil is a pollen feeder; its survival is diminished without squaring cotton, although adult boll weevils emerging from overwintering quarters may subsist on other plants for short periods (e.g., an average of 18 days on yellow woolywhite in the Rolling Plains area). After adult weevils feed on cotton for 3 to 7 days and mate, they lay eggs in squares that have reached at least the "one-third grown stage" (approximately 1/4 inch in diameter). Egg laying may occur in smaller squares; however, sufficient feeding material is not available for a high percentage of larvae to develop to the adult stage. Late in the season eggs may be laid in small bolls, but squares are preferred.
It takes the eggs 2.5 to 5 days to hatch into the grublike
larva that feeds inside the square or small boll. After larval development
begins the infested square turns yellow, bracts open or flare and the fruiting
form falls off the plant. The larva feeds for 7 to 14 days before pupating
inside the square or small boll. During the next 4 to 6 days the pupal stage
changes into an adult boll weevil. The newly developed adult eats its way out of
the square or small boll and feeds on other fruiting forms for about 5 days.
During this time the weevil mates and females begin to lay eggs. The entire
cycle takes 16 to 18 days under ideal conditions. Six or seven generations may
be produced each year with each female having the capability of laying
approximately 200 eggs.
Evidence of infestation. Although adult boll weevil feeding causes little damage, it indicates the presence of weevils and that egg laying will soon follow. There are distinct differences between feeding and egg-laying punctures.
As weevils feed, a small cavity is formed at the site of feeding. If a female weevil determines that the feeding site is suitable for egg laying, she enlarges the cavity slightly and inserts her ovipositor (egg-laying tube) to deposit a single egg in the cavity. When the ovipositor is withdrawn she secretes a sticky substance that covers the cavity. This sticky secretion hardens to form a wart-like protuberance that can be easily seen and felt. Feeding punctures usually have no sticky covering and therefore no wart-like protuberance.
Nature of damage. Most of the damage is due to larval development inside fruiting forms. Feeding larvae eventually cause cotton squares and small bolls to shed or damage developing lint in larger bolls. Heavily infested cotton may produce much foliage but few mature bolls.
Cotton fleahopper (Pseudatomoscelis seriatus [Reuter])
Identification. The adult cotton fleahopper is approximately 1/8
inch long. It is flat with an elongated, oval outline and prominent antennae.
The body usually is yellowish-green, although it may be white or yellow with
minute black hairs and spots on the upper surface. After feeding, the immature
stage is pale green with prominent, often reddish eyes. Other parts of the body
also may be reddish. Cotton fleahopper eggs are yellowish-white, about 1/30 of
an inch long and are inserted under the bark of small stems.
Biology. The cotton fleahopper overwinters in the egg stage, primarily in wild hosts such as woolly croton (Croton capitatus), cutleaf evening primrose (Oenothera laciniata), showy sundrops (Oenothera speciosa), wooly tidestromia (Tidestromia lanaginosa), spotted [horsemint] beebalm (Monarda punctata), lemon [horsemint] beebalm (Monarda citriodora) and silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium). At 80° F., eggs hatch in about 11 days, and the young nymphs feed on tender vegetation. They usually molt five times and require 14 to 15 days to mature into the reproductive adult cotton fleahopper. Usually there are six to eight generations per year. Of these, only one to three occur in the cotton field. Early in the spring, fleahoppers build up large numbers on alternate weed hosts. As these hosts mature and become less succulent, the cotton fleahopper searches for more preferred hosts. If cotton is present, fleahoppers colonize in it and feed on leaf and fruit buds. Some fleahoppers stay in cotton fields as long as cotton plants are lush and succulent.
Nature of damage and evidence of
infestation. The cotton fleahopper feeds on anthers of small squares and
sucks sap from leaf buds. This feeding causes squares to die and turn brown,
resulting in a "blasted" appearance. When fleahoppers are abundant, heavy fruit
loss may occur on preflowering plants. The cotton fleahopper prefers terminal
bud clusters including young leaves and tiny squares. The piercing, sucking
habit of nymphs and adults interferes with normal growth patterns in cotton.
Feeding punctures stimulate the plant to produce shorter main stem internodes,
more nodes and spindly branches or "suckers" from the lower parts of the plant.
The fleahopper injects saliva when feeding, but its effects are only local.
There is no evidence that fleahoppers transmit plant diseases or toxic
substances other than digestive enzymes.
Bollworm (Heliothis zea [Boddie]) and Tobacco budworm (Heliothis virescens [Fabricius])
Identification. Bollworms and tobacco budworms pass through four
developmental stages--egg, larva, pupa and adult. The adult bollworm is a robust
moth with a wing span and body length of approximately 1 ½ inches. Fore wings
vary from light brown or tan to reddish-brown and are 
marked with dark areas near the tip and a dark spot usually
near the center. The hind wing of the bollworm moth is white to light tan with
an irregular dark band on the outer hind margin. The adult tobacco budworm is
similar but with a slightly smaller wing span and body length of about 1 1/4
inches. The fore wing of the tobacco budworm usually is light olive green with
three or four light-colored, oblique bands. In the larval stages, bollworms and
tobacco budworms look alike. Their size varies from very small (1/16 inch) when
hatched up to 2 inches long as the larva reaches maximum size.
Tobacco budworm larvae have a tooth-like projection on
the inside surface of the mandibles and fine short hairs on the first, second
and eighth abdominal projection (tubercle) which bear a single, prominent spine.
If the projection and hairs are absent, this indicates a bollworm. A microscope
or hand lens is necessary to observe these characteristics.
The larval color of both species varies from a uniform
light green to shades of green or brown, usually with stripes running the length
of the body. It is impossible to distinguish between the two species by
coloration. Bollworm and tobacco budworm eggs are similar. When recently laid,
they are whitish colored and approximately the size of a pin head. Eggs are
hemispherical in shape, resembling an inverted cup, with ridges running along
the side from the top center to the point of attachment on the plant. They are
usually deposited singly about the plant, and as they mature, usually within 2
to 5 days, they become tannish-brown. The darkening indicates the approaching
hatch. 
Biology. The bollworm and tobacco budworm overwinter in the pupal stage in the soil near host plants. They pupate in the upper 5 inches of the soil. With adult emergence in the early spring, they commonly complete several generations on hosts other than cotton. These alternate hosts include legumes, corn and sorghum (bollworm only) or noncrop, native vegetation.
Moths enter cotton fields and feed on plant exudates (usually nectar). Eggs require 2 to 5 days to hatch. Larvae feed on fruiting forms for 14 to 18 days. After feeding ceases, larvae burrow into soil around plants and pupate where they spend 12 to 18 days. Upon emergence as adults, moths spend 2 to 5 days feeding on nectar from nectaries before egg laying begins again. The complete life cycle may take 35 to 50 days depending on weather conditions.
Nature of damage and evidence of infestation. The first indication
of bollworm or tobacco budworm infestation may be newly deposited eggs in the
terminal area of cotton plants. Eggs usually are laid on the upper surface of
tender foliage and other tender parts including bracts, blooms, small squares
and bolls. Newly hatched larvae usually begin feeding on tender leaf surfaces
and other tender vegetation before attacking fruiting forms. Smaller larvae feed
on smaller fruiting forms and generally move progressively to larger fruiting
forms as they grow.
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
Larvae tunnel into small squares and terminal buds leaving holes that range
in size from very small up to the diameter of a pencil. The entry site usually
is at the base of fruit. In most cases, frass or excrement is seen at the
feeding site. This frass is distinguishable from that of the boll weevil because
it is slightly larger and is dark brown; boll weevil frass contains silk strands
and is yellow or orange. 
Feeding damages or destroys the squares, blooms and bolls. Injured squares
flare and drop from plants usually within 5 to 7 days. Large larvae feed on
bolls, squares and pollen in open flowers. They may even devour the contents of
large bolls. Worm-damaged bolls frequently are lost to boll rot even if not
eaten completely. Larvae may "top" young plants by devouring the terminal. This
often delays plant growth and may cause abnormal, nonproductive growth.
OCCASIONAL PESTS
Occasional pests are those whose populations increase to damaging levels only infrequently. In general they do not cause economic loss on a yearly basis. Occasional pest flare ups are often a result of disruptions in natural control.
Beet armyworm (Spodoptera exigua [Hubner])
Identification. The adult stage of the beet armyworm has a wing span
of 1 to 1 1/4 inches, and the fore wing is grayish-brown with two yellow spots
near the center. The hind wing is a translucent white with narrow brown borders.
The immature stage of the beet armyworm is a distinctive green larva up to 1 1/4
inch long. There is a conspicuous black dot on each side of the second body
segment behind the head. The female lays masses of about 80 eggs beginning early
in the spring. These eggs are covered with hairs and scales from her body.
 |
 |
 |
Biology. The female lays an average of 500 to 600 eggs over a 4- to
10-day period. These eggs take 2 to 5 days to hatch. The larvae then feed for
about 3 weeks and pass through five instars (growth stages). As small larvae
they may spin a light web over the foliage. Small larvae feed in groups for
several days but later spread out and become solitary feeders. After larval
feeding, 
pupation takes place in the upper 1/4 inch of the soil in a cell
formed by gluing soil particles and trash together with a sticky secretion. This
entire life cycle from the egg to adult requires 30 to 40 days, depending on
weather conditions. Beet armyworms overwinter in the pupal stage.
Nature of damage and evidence of infestation. The most obvious
indication of infestation is the characteristic egg masses coupled with
defoliation by the larval feeding. Beet armyworms also feed on fruiting forms of
cotton and occasionally may cause severe damage. Larvae often feed on the bracts
causing little or no damage.
 |
 |
 |
Brown cotton leafworm (Acontia dacia Drucel)
Identification. The adult stage of the brown cotton leafworm is sexually dimorphic, meaning males and females do not resemble one another. The fore wing of the female is gray at the base, bordered by an irregular dark band terminated with a white line. Each wing has a conspicuous reddish-brown spot near the trailing edge. The fore wing of the male is pale gray in the basal area and is bordered by an evenly curved white line extending obliquely across the wing. Here it joins a similar transverse line that separates the black tip from the white area. The average wing span of both male and female is about 1 inch. This is slightly smaller than the cotton leafworm.
The larval stage of the brown cotton leafworm is reddish-brown mottled with
white. The larva is smooth and has a protuberance on the top of the eighth
abdominal segment. Eggs are shaped like a football, bluish-green and about the
size of a bollworm egg. They can be distinguished from the bollworm egg by the
semitransparent ribs of varying lengths and the distinctive transparent ridges,
resembling a band or belt. This insect pupates on the surface or in the top 1/4
inch of the soil. The cocoon is capsule-like and made up of soil particles,
plant material and silken fibers spun by the larva. 
Biology. Eggs, laid in the spring, hatch in about 3 days. Larvae go through several growth stages during a 12-day span. The pupal stage lasts about 15 days. Therefore, the life cycle requires about 30 to 35 days. Adult moths lay eggs 3 to 4 days after emerging from the pupal case.
Nature of damage and evidence of infestation. The brown cotton leafworm is a foliage feeder. Damage in the early stage of an infestation is characterized by a buckshot pattern of holes in the leaves. Later, and under more severe attack, the plants may be defoliated completely.
Cabbage looper (Trichoplusia ni [Hubner]) 
Identification. The adult cabbage looper is a grayish brown, mottled
moth approximately I inch long with a wing span of 1 ½ inches. There is a
characteristic silvery spot resembling a "V" or a figure "8" with an open end at
the top near the center of the fore wing. The hind wings are pale brown but
darker toward the edge of the wing. The larva, when fully developed, is about 2
inches long and light green with several white lines extending the length of the
body. The larvae have three pairs of slender legs near the head and three
thicker, club-shaped prolegs behind the middle toward the rear. The middle half
of the body is without legs. Usually there are two light
 |
 |
Biology. The cabbage looper overwinters in a cocoon and usually remains attached to the plant material upon which it has fed. Upon emergence in the early spring, adults feed for a short time and begin laying eggs. One adult moth may lay 200 to 350 eggs. The egg stage lasts 2 to 3 days. Larvae feed for 2 to 4 weeks before changing into pupae in silk cocoons attached to plants. The pupal stage lasts 12 to 14 days before adult moths emerge. The complete generation requires about 35 days.
Nature of damage and evidence of infestation.
Cabbage loopers are principally foliage feeders. An infestation is characterized
by a buckshot or tattered appearance in the leaves. Larvae have a characteristic
movement from which the name is derived. Sometimes referred to as "measuring,"
the larvae move about the plant by reaching out with the front part of their
body, humping up the middle and pulling the rear part of their body forward.
They may eat the area between leaf veins, occasionally creating a net-like
appearance. Infestations may be greater along field margins. Cabbage loopers are
seldom an economic pest; however, severe defoliation of cotton plants may cause
problems with boll maturation. Severe defoliation before bolls mature reduces
yields drastically. Any partial defoliation occurring later in the season has
little effect on yield.
Cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii Glover)
 |
 |
Biology. The biology of the cotton aphid is unique. All adults are females. These females live and produce young on growing plants year round. Aphids reproduce rapidly. One female may produce as many as 80 young females that mature within 8 to 10 days. Thus, it is possible for aphids to have as many as 50 generations per year. These generations also occur as frequently as every 5 to 7 days under optimum conditions.
Nature of damage and evidence of infestation.
Aphids are easily observed on cotton plants. They commonly appear on the
underside of leaves where they suck the sap, causing leaves to curl and
sometimes shed. Cotton aphids cause leaves to curl downward and "cup under, "
which is in contrast to the upward curling caused by thrips. Aphids excrete
honeydew, a sticky substance easily seen on cotton plants. A black sooty mold
may grow on the honeydew during periods of high humidity. Feeding aphids may
cause malformed plants or even kill seedling plants. If aphid populations are
high at harvest, lint may become sticky with honeydew and interfere with ginning
and spinning. Aphids serve as a very important food source for natural enemies
of other cotton pests.
Cotton leafworm (Alabama argillacea [Hubner])
Identification. The adult cotton
leafworm is a tan to brownish moth with a few darker, wavy, transverse bars on
the fore wings. There may be an olive gray or purple tinge to the coloration.
The distinctive characteristics of the cotton leafworm adults are the undulating
reddish lines across the front wings and the oval dark spot near the center of
each fore wing. The wing span is about 1 ½ inches. Cotton leafworm larvae are
smooth, light to dark yellowish-green and marked with three narrow white stripes
down the back and one along each side.
The larvae have four black dots that form a square on the top of each body segment, similar to a double four domino. Each black spot has a black spine, and the center is surrounded with a white ring. This gives it the domino characteristic. The size varies from very small to 1 ½ inch in length. Larvae are pale when small and change to a brighter color as they mature. Eggs of the cotton leafworm usually are seen on the underside of leaves. They are bluish-green when first laid, flat and barely as large as the head of a pin.
Biology. The cotton leafworm is a tropical species and does not overwinter in the U.S. In the spring, adult moths fly in from the tropics or are blown in on prevailing winds. They begin laying their eggs on cotton leaves. These eggs are scattered on the underside of the leaves and laid singly. Eggs hatch within 3 days and the young larvae begin feeding. Larvae pass through five to six growth stages per generation, each a different length. During optimum conditions and in mid-summer the larval stage lasts approximately 15 days. The larvae of cotton leafworms web up with a boll or roll of leaves forming flimsy cocoons for protection just before pupation. Pupation, which occurs on the cotton plant, takes approximately 6 to 10 days. Newly emerged adults lay eggs within 2 to 4 days.
Nature of damage and evidence of infestation.
Feeding patterns of cotton leafworms are characteristic because they feed on the
underside of leaves between the veins, skeletonizing them. The skeletonizing of
leaves causes a reduction in photosynthetic potential. Although this insect is
essentially a leaf feeder, it can attack squares and small bolls. The cotton
leafworm in Texas is a late-season pest that often aids defoliation just before
harvest.
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
Cotton leafperforator (Bucculatrix thurberiella Busck)
Identification. The adult cotton leafperforator is a small, slender, usually white moth with black markings on the fore wings. The wing span and body length are approximately 2/5 to ½ inch. The larva is a dull amber green with two rows of black spots and distinct white projections (tubercles) on its back. The larva reaches a maximum length of ½ inch. The pupa is a cocoon of silk-like material on the stalks of cotton plants. These pupal cocoons are white, approximately ½ inch in length and arranged longitudinally on the plant. Eggs usually are laid singly on cotton leaves.
Biology and evidence of infestation. After eggs hatch, early instar
larvae make a winding, randomly patterned mine in leaves. The larvae feed in the
mines through the third instar. At the fourth instar they emerge from the mine
as free feeders. Damage from these free-feeding larvae skeletonizes the leaf.
Cotton leafperforators have a characteristic horseshoe-shaped stage that marks
the time between the fourth and fifth instar larva. This resting stage is in the
form of a small, grayish horseshoe and is obvious on the underside of the leaf.
When cotton leafperforator larvae emerge from the horseshoe stage they continue
to feed freely. Mature larvae spin a fine web, drop to the ground and move along
the ground to the base of cotton or other plants in the area. There the
characteristic slender, ribbed, white cocoon is constructed. The cotton
leafperforator is most frequently a problem in hot, dry climates. 
Nature of damage. The main damage done by the cotton leafperforator
involves interference with normal boll maturation. Severe infestations halt
normal growth and respiration of the cotton plant and effectively stop the
maturing process. Heavy populations are commonly associated with multiple
insecticide applications that destroy parasites and predators. Fortunately,
infestations usually occur late in the season when the crop is mature.
 |
 |
 |
  | ||
Cotton square borer (Strymon melinus [Hubner])
Identification. The adult cotton square borer is a slate or
bluish-gray butterfly. It has two large black spots on the wings with smaller
reddish-orange spots above these at the back edge of the hind wing. There are
usually two or three thin tails on the hind wing. The underside of the wings is
lighter gray with a white streak along the edge. The wing spread of the cotton
square borer adult is approximately 1 inch. The larval stage is a velvety, light
green, slug-shaped worm. The body is covered by a succession of oblique lines
running the width of the body segments. Cotton square borer eggs are pale green
and laid singly on plants. 
Biology. The adult begins laying eggs early in the spring. The eggs take approximately 6 days to hatch; then the small larvae feed on cotton squares for approximately 20 days. After the feeding period the insect spends about 10 days in the pupal stage.
Nature of damage and evidence of infestation. Presence of adult butterflies usually is the first indication of cotton square borer activity. However, hollowed out squares with almost perfectly round entrance/exit holes also may be observed. Unlike bollworm or tobacco budworm damage, there is no frass present with cotton square borer damage.
Cotton stainer (Dysdercus suterellus
[Herrick-Schaffer])
Identification. The adult cotton stainer is a
"true bug" with piercing, sucking mouthparts. The head and pronotum are bright
red; the remainder of the body is dark brown crossed with pale yellow lines. The
length is ½ inch or slightly longer. Immature stages are smaller but resemble
adults without wings. Cotton stainer eggs are small, pale and laid singly on
cotton plants or dropped on the ground near cotton plants.
Biology. Eggs hatch in 5 to 8 days. There are five instars in the immature stage which lasts about 21 to 35 days. The first instar immatures are usually found congregating near the egg shell after emergence. The second and third instars feed gregariously on the bolls. Later instars wander freely over the plant.
Nature of damage. The cotton stainer is mainly a pest of long staple cotton. It damages developing bolls by puncturing seeds and causing plant sap to exude from the feeding site. The plant sap stains the lint an indelible yellow color. Feeding by the cotton stainer also interferes with the bolls' natural development.
 |
 |
Biology. Most cutworms overwinter in the larval stage, but some
overwinter as pupae or adults. The eggs are laid on grass or soil in low spots
of the field. They normally hatch in 2 to 5 days. 
The average time of larval feeding is 2 to 3
weeks. The pupal stage remains in the soil for 7 to 8 days. About 35 days
normally are required to complete a generation.
Nature of damage and evidence of infestation. Cutworms usually cut off plant stems at the soil surface. Stand reduction may be more visible in field margins and low lying weedy areas. Some cutworm species climb up plants and feed on leaves. Cutworm damage can be severe enough to require replanting on rare occasions.
Fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda [J.E. Smith])
Identification. The adult fall armyworm is a
dark brownish-gray, mottled moth with oblique markings near the center of the
fore wing. There is an irregular white or gray patch near the wing tip. Female
moths are darker than males. The hindwing is white in females with a pearly or
pink luster and a brown border. The wing span of the fall armyworm is
approximately 1 ½ inches. The larva of the fall armyworm, when newly hatched, is
white with a black head. As feeding progresses, the larva becomes darker. Young
fall armyworms often curl up on a leaf or suspend from a silken thread. As the
larvae mature they turn greenish-brown with a white line below the top of the
back, usually a brownish-black stripe above the midline and a pale stripe with a
reddish-brown tinge below. Mature larvae are about 1 ½ inches long. There is a
prominent white inverted "Y" on the front of the head. Fall armyworm larvae can
be distinguished from beet armyworms by the presence of black hairs on the body.
Fall armyworm eggs are similar to those of the beet armyworm. They are laid in
masses of 50 to 100 and covered with hairs and scales from the female's body.
Biology. The fall armyworm is another tropical insect which is apparently unable to overwinter in the United States except during mild winters. In the early spring swarms of moths are blown up or fly northward from tropical areas. Approximately 3 to 5 days are required for the eggs to hatch. Developmental time of the larval stage takes 2 weeks to a month. Pupation occurs in the ground near the cotton plant and usually requires 1 to 2 weeks. The adult begins laying eggs after 3 or 4 days and lays about 150 eggs a day for 8 to 10 days.
Nature of damage and evidence of infestation.
When abundant, they generally eat all available foliage and then crawl in armies
to adjoining fields. Fall armyworms are general feeders and do not confine
themselves to cotton.
Fall armyworm populations can build up large numbers in cotton fields, and defoliation may be quite severe on rare occasions. The greatest damage comes from the topping of plants. Branches may be cut off and sometimes the stalks may almost be completely severed a foot from the top. They also tend to feed on squares, blooms and bolls on the flower part of the plant. Several worms may be found on individual plants. They are an occasional cotton pest where grasses grow in or near cotton fields.
Grasshoppers -- Lubber grasshopper
(Brachystola magna [Girard]); Differential grasshopper (Melanoplus spp.)
 |
 |
Identification. Adult grasshoppers vary in appearance, but all have well developed back legs for jumping. The immature stage is similar to the adult but does not have wings. Grasshopper eggs are laid in the soil in a cemented mass or pod. Depending on the species, there may be 8 to 25 eggs in each pod. These pods usually are distinctive and are used in species identification.
Biology. The biology of the different grasshoppers varies
considerably. However, in most species the female lays eggs in the soil where
overwintering takes place. Some species overwinter as 
partially grown nymphs or as adults. Upon
hatching in the early spring, grasshoppers usually require 40 to 60 days of
feeding before reaching reproductive maturity. Seldom is there more than one
generation per year.
Nature of damage. Grasshoppers may become problems in cotton fields
when wild or cultivated host plants are depleted near fields. When infestations
are heavy, grasshoppers cause severe defoliation by feeding on foliage and
tender plant parts. Their damage usually is confined to areas along field
margins where alternate host plants are near.
Tarnished plant bug (Lygus lineolaris P. de
Beav.)
 |
 |
Identification. Adult tarnished plant bugs are about 1/4 inch long and approximately half that wide. They are flat and have an oval outline. They are similar to cotton fleahoppers in shape; however, they usually are about two to three times larger than the cotton fleahopper. They are generally brown in color with splotches of white, yellow and reddish-brown. Along the side of the body on the hind part of the wing there is a clear, black-tipped triangle. This description varies from the lygus bug, typically found in West Texas, in that its color ranges from pale green to yellowish brown. There is a conspicuous light-colored triangle on the back of the Lygus bug (Lygus hesperus Knight) between the wings. When first hatched, tarnished plant bug nymphs are pale green and have an orange spot in the middle of the abdomen. After feeding begins, nymphs become darker green and black spots become evident on the body segment (thorax) between the head and abdomen. The whitish egg is slightly curved, elongated and has a lid on its tip.
Biology. In most areas tarnished plant bugs overwinter as adults. Mature adults lay eggs in the cotton plants; these hatch in about 8 days. The immature nymphal stage develops in approximately 11 days. Each generation is completed in 20 to 30 days in the summer, and there may be more than one generation per year.
Nature of damage and evidence of infestation. Like cotton
fleahoppers, most tarnished plant bugs occur on other host plants in areas
surrounding cotton fields. They feed by inserting their 
mouthparts into the tender plant parts and
sucking sap. Feeding on squares and small bolls usually causes fruit shed. The
most important period of plant susceptibility is during the first 3 weeks of
squaring with the first week being the most critical. During heavy infestations
fruit removal can be excessive and of economic importance. Occasionally, damaged
squares and bolls do not shed. Although squares may bloom, floral parts are
damaged and show evidence of feeding. If an injured boll does not shed, it opens
abnormally and may have lint damage.
Omnivorous leafroller (Platynota stultana
Walsingham)
Identification. The adult stage of the omnivorous leafroller is a
small moth approximately ½ to 3/5 inch long. The fore wing has a dark brown
inner half and a yellowish-brown outer half. Mouthparts that extend in front of
the head give the appearance of a beak. The immature stage is a yellowish-white
caterpillar with a brown head and shield behind the head. As the larva matures
the coloring changes to yellowish-green or brownish-green with a broad
transparent stripe down the top of the back. The larva is approximately 3/5 inch
long. The green eggs are laid in flat clusters overlapping one another like fish
scales. The egg mass is cemented to the plant with a secretion from the female's
reproductive glands. 
Biology and evidence of infestation. The adult female omnivorous
leafroller may lay more than 300 eggs during her life span. These eggs take only
a few days to hatch. The dark-headed larvae begin making silken ladders on which
they move about and feed. The larva has a peculiar habit of concealing itself by
rolling a leaf around its body. Some larvae develop completely in a single leaf
roll, while others may build several. After about 25 days of feeding pupation
takes place within the leaf roll. The adult emerges about 5 days later.
Pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella
[Saunders])
 |
 |
 |
Identification. The adult pink bollworm is a ½ inch grayish-brown moth with a 2/5 inch wing span. When it rests, the moth's wings are folded close to the body. These wings are covered with poorly defined black spots and have blackish tips with a broad band near the tip. Wing margins are fringed with hairs. The immature pink bollworm is a small larva with a yellowish brown head. It may be as long as ½ inch just before pupation. Young larvae are white and turn pink with age. The pink coloration occurs in dark transverse bands running across or covering the body. Pink bollworm eggs are greenish-white and are laid on the stems and squares and occasionally on terminal buds. They are most often found between the calyx and boll wall. Eggs are usually deposited singly.
Biology. Eggs normally hatch within 4 to 5 days. Developing larvae bore into and feed on the developing flower or into a boll to feed on the seed. Larvae feed for 10 to 14 days. They usually leave the fruit and pupate in the soil, taking about 8 days to transform into an adult. In late summer and fall many larvae do not pupate immediately upon completion of the feeding period but remain inside the boll. These are the overwintering stages that give rise to the first generation the following season. Overwintering usually takes place in seed inside bolls or inside two hollowed out seeds with a pupal case connecting them. These "double seeds" are found when cotton is ginned.
Nature of damage and evidence of
infestation. Early in the season, infested squares continue growing and
producing blooms. These infested blooms may have the petals tied together with
silken threads, commonly termed "rosetted." The rosetted flowers do not open
normally. After bolls are present they become the preferred egg-laying site. The
developing larvae tunnel through the boll wall until they reach the lint. They
cut through the lint fiber as they move from seed to seed. The burrowing
activity stains lint; destroys fibers; and reduces seed weight, vitality and oil
content. Pink bollworms cut holes in boll walls as they leave bolls for
pupation. These holes may become infected with boll-rotting organisms. During
severe infestation, many bolls that might otherwise have been harvested are
rendered unpickable.
Saltmarsh caterpillar (Estigmene acrea [Drury])
 |
 |
Biology. The saltmarsh caterpillar
overwinters under plant debris in the pupal stage inside a fragile, silken
cocoon heavily covered with interwoven hairs from the caterpillar's body. Upon
emergence in the early spring, the female lays as many as 1,000 spherically
shaped eggs in patches on the underside of host plant leaves. Newly hatched
saltmarsh caterpillar larvae are gregarious. They feed in large numbers on the
bottom side of leaves. As the larvae mature they disperse and feed singly. The
larval stage requires 30 to 48 days for completion; pupation may take up to 14
days. There usually are two to five generations per year.
Nature of damage and evidence of infestation. This insect usually is a problem on the edges of fields and in areas where alternate host plants are available. These pests can be severe defoliators when present in large numbers. Saltmarsh caterpillars may migrate in mas from one field to another like armyworms.
Spider mites (Tetranychus spp.)
Identification. Spider mites are not
insects. They have eight legs in the adult stage instead of the six which is
characteristic of insects. The adults are so small they can barely be seen with
the naked eye. They are usually red, but may be green, orange or straw colored.
Casually observed, spider mites often look like dust particles on the underside
of leaves.
Biology. Although spider mites attacking cotton are really a complex of several genera and species, they all have similar life histories and biology. Spider mites pass through egg, larval, nymphal and adult stages. They overwinter in the adult female stage in protected vegetation near fields. The female lays her eggs on the underside of leaves in early spring. Eggs hatch in 1 to 3 days. Freshly hatched larvae have only six legs and are transparent. They feed for 2 to 3 days before molting (shedding their skin) and developing into eight-legged nymphal mites. Nymphs feed for 5 to 6 days before molting into eight-legged adults. Adults feed for 1 to 3 days before laying eggs. The entire life cycle requires only 6 or 7 days under optimum conditions and 11 days under normal field conditions. Spider mites have an unusual life history in that fertilized eggs produce females and unfertilized eggs hatch into males.
Nature of damage and evidence of
infestation. Spider mite infestations should be suspected when small,
yellow spots appear on the upper surface of cotton leaves. This stippled
discoloration is typical of early feeding stages. These yellow areas often
result in leaf reddening as mite feeding continues. Large numbers of mites cause
leaves to die and complete defoliation can occur. The lower surface of an
infested leaf usually is covered with a fine web and cast skins. Live spider
mites can be observed crawling beneath the web on the underside of the leaf
surface. Spider mites cause more harm to cotton plants during hot, dry weather
and usually attack cotton in the latter part of the season. Mites damage cotton
by feeding on the sap of leaves, stems and squares. Since they suck sap and
chlorophyll from the leaves, this reduces the photosynthetic area and interferes
with normal maturation of the cotton plant. Spider mite infestations generally
begin on the edge of fields and then spread through the field. They frequently
are a problem following insecticide applications which kill their natural
enemies.
 |
 |
Stink bugs (Acrosternum hilare [Say]) and (Chlorochroa ligata [Say])
Identification. Two species of stink
bugs are typically found in Texas cotton and may cause problems. The green stink
bug (Acrosternum hilare [Say]) and the conchuela stink bug (Chlorochroa ligata
[Say]) are most often involved. The adult stages of these two stink bugs are
similar. They are shield-shaped, flat and vary in size around ½ inch in length.
The green stink bug is bright green, while the conchuela stink bug is dark brown
to black with a red border and a red spot on the tip of the abdomen. The
immature stage of the stink bug is similar to the adult but lacks wings. Stink
bug eggs have a distinctive barrel shape and usually are laid in clusters on
stems and leaves. These egg masses resemble many barrels lined up in rows.
Biology. The biology of these two species follows the same pattern. Eggs are laid on the host plant and require only a few days to hatch. When climatic conditions are favorable, a generation of these insects may be completed in about 6 weeks.
Nature of damage and evidence of
infestation. Stink bugs seldom develop in large numbers on cotton. They
feed by inserting their long, piercing mouthparts and sucking out the plant
juices thereby injuring squares and bolls. This may cause small bolls to fall
from the plants. Although larger bolls commonly remain on the plant, feeding
injury results in hardened, dry locks. At each feeding site there is a hardened
spot. Lint beneath the feeding spot may be stained or reduced in grade.
Boll-rotting organisms also are associated with the feeding of these insects. In
Texas stink bugs rarely occur in damaging numbers. They are most likely to be
found in damaging numbers late in the season.
|
 |
 |
Thrips (Thrips spp.) and (Frankliniella spp.)
 |
 |
 |
Identification. Thrips are minute, slender, agile insects. They rarely exceed 1/15 inch in length and usually are yellowish-brown, black, tan or sometimes orange. Their mouthparts are cone-shaped, and their wings are narrow and fringed with hairs.
Biology. Thrips appear on growing plants throughout the
year in most areas. Eggs, inserted into the plant tissue by the female's sharp
egg-laying tube (ovipositor), hatch in about 6 days. There are two larval stages
that require about 6 days for completion.
The prepupal and pupal stages require an additional 4 days. Egg to adult
development requires about 16 days. The average life span of a mated female is
about 35 days. Fifty or more eggs may be produced. Thrips can reproduce without
mating. Mated females produce both males and females while unmated females
produce only males. Nature of damage and evidence of infestation.
Thrips are early season pests of seedling cotton. They may be a problem under
cool, wet conditions when plant growth is slowed. They may be especially
numerous in cotton grown near maturing small grains. Thrips damage cotton leaves
and terminal buds. Their feeding ruptures cells which cause stunted plants and
crinkled leaves that curl upward. During severe infestations terminal buds may
be destroyed, causing excessive branching of the plants and delaying plant
growth. Also, the cotyledonary leaves take on a silvery appearance, sometimes
termed "bronzing.
Whiteflies (Bemesia tabaci [Gennadius])
 |
 |
Biology. Whiteflies are active throughout the year on alternate
hosts. Adults mate immediately after emerging from pupae. Eggs are laid on fully
opened leaves in the terminal. These eggs require about 5 to 6 days to hatch.
The nymphs, also called crawlers, move short distances, but after they insert
their mouthparts into the leaves they become immobile. They feed for 5 or 6 
days during the first three growth stages.
Another 5 or 6 days are spent in a pseudo-pupal stage where no feeding occurs
for the last 2 days. After this stage the adult emerges ready to produce eggs.
The adult female lays an average of seven eggs a day for 3 weeks. Peak whitefly
numbers usually occur early in the season and during high humidity periods.
Evidence of infestation and nature of damage. These tiny snow white insects are easily observable flying about the cotton plant. They excrete honeydew much like aphids. Infested leaves lack vigor, wilt and may turn yellow.
Yellow-striped armyworm
(Spodoptera ornithogalli [Guenee])
 |
 |
Identification. The adult yellow-striped armyworm is a large moth with a wing spread of 1 ½ to 1 3/4 inches. The fore wing is blackish-brown, occasionally with a reddish tint, or may be yellowish-brown with oblique yellow markings near the center. There may be bluish-gray markings at the apex and the hind angle of the fore wing. The wing veins usually are lighter colored. Hind wings usually are irridescent white with a narrow brown border. The larval stage is a smooth caterpillar with scattered short hairs. As with other armyworms found in cotton, the inverted "Y" on the front of the head is prominent. The yellow-striped armyworm has a pair of black, triangular spots below the top surface on each segment except those between the head and the abdomen. There are yellowish-brown or occasionally orange stripes with white lines along each side. These yellow lines give the yellow-striped armyworm its name. Eggs are laid in masses on leaves and are covered with hairs and scales from the female's body.
Biology. This species overwinters in the pupal
stage. After emerging in early spring, the female feeds for a couple of days
before laying eggs. Eggs hatch in about 6 days. The larval stage takes
approximately 20 days to complete. Pupation usually takes about 14 days during
the summer. An entire life cycle from egg to adult requires 35 to 45 days.
Nature of damage and evidence of infestation. The yellow-striped
armyworm is a day-feeding insect. The brightly colored larvae are easy to
recognize. They prefer foliage as the feeding site. They also bore into squares
and bolls. They are general feeders and infrequent cotton pests, although when
alternate hosts are not available they can defoliate cotton and damage the
fruiting forms.
PREDACEOUS INSECTS AND SPIDERS
W.L. Sterling
In Texas, native predaceous insects and spiders are the dominant biological control agents of the bollworm (Heliothis zea [Boddie]) and the tobacco budworm (H. virescens [Fabricius]). Native parasites are also valuable natural enemies. Other predators such as birds, lizards, snakes, toads, frogs, mice, skunks, armadillos, etc., also prey on these insect pests, but their dependability and efficiency generally are much lower than that of parasites, predaceous insects and spiders in cotton fields.
Native biological control organisms, along with other factors such as heat, cold, moisture, etc., often maintain cotton pests below numbers that cause economic crop losses. About 60 percent of the cotton in Texas is grown without requiring chemical insecticides, thus dependence is entirely on biological and physical control. Researchers are working to establish economic thresholds (action levels based on pest densities at which protective action is needed to prevent unacceptable losses) and to establish predator densities at which no action (inaction levels) is needed because the predators are sufficient to maintain pests below the economic threshold. It is essential to know which predators are most abundant and efficient and when they move to or from the field. A knowledge of predator effectiveness against individual pest species also is needed.
Predator densities and seasonal changes in populations presented in the following discussion are based on levels observed in East Texas cotton fields where broad spectrum insecticides are not used directly on the crop or do not drift into the field. The time of peak predator densities and average densities varies across Texas depending on prey availability, growth stage of the cotton plant, predator distributions and many other factors. The species and number may vary in some years and in some places.
The choice of predators for this discussion was based on their relative abundance in cotton and their importance as egg and small larval predators of bollworms or tobacco budworms. These predators often eat eggs and small worms before they develop into large worms that cause crop losses. In general, small predators feed on small prey such as eggs and small larvae, and larger predators kill large worms. Thus, identification of small, immature insect and spider predators, as well as adults, is important in pest management.
Most predators in cotton fields are general feeders that do not depend on a single pest species for food. Thus, if one prey species becomes scarce, predators switch to another prey or may even resort to plant juices or nectar to survive. A complex of predator species can coexist and bring stability to the system. As any one pest species increases, bringing it out of balance with the system, predators switch to this new food source and again bring the pest into equilibrium.
Native predators are of great economic benefit to the cotton farmer. They voluntarily enter the cotton field, are self-multiplying and are completely free of cost.
More than 600 insect and spider predator species have been recorded in cotton fields. The 16 most important species are included in this publication.
The abundance and importance of insect predators vary considerably from year to year and from place to place. In any particular locality certain insect predators not mentioned here may be dominant. However, current evidence suggests the following eight insects play a dominant role in regulating bollworms and tobacco budworms in many cotton fields.
Minute pirate bugs (Orius spp.)
Two species of pirate bugs are found on cotton in Texas.
In eastern Texas the insidious flower bug (Orius insidiosus [Say]) is
often the dominant species. In West Texas and the Lower Rio Grande Valley it is
often replaced by the minute pirate bug (Orius tristicolor [White]).
Both species are black and white and measure less than 1/8 inch.
Pirate bugs usually are one of the most abundant cotton predators averaging three per meter (40 inches) of row with peaks of five to 10 per meter of row in mid-July in East Texas. They enter the cotton field very early in the season, reaching a spring peak in June or July and a fall peak in September. They feed on aphids, thrips, whiteflies, mites and bollworm-budworm eggs and small larvae. Reproduction occurs in cotton. The orange pirate bug nymphs also are predaceous.
When bollworm or tobacco budworm eggs are plentiful, pirate bugs eat about one egg per day. They also kill and consume about one or two small worms every 2 days.
Several species of bigeyed bugs are found in Texas
cotton; however, the two most abundant species are G. punctipes [Say]),
a large grey species, and G. uliginosus [Say]), a small black species.
All bigeyed bugs found on cotton have distinctively broad heads, large
conspicuous eyes and range in length from 1/8 to 1/4 inch.
In East Texas, bigeyed bugs peak in mid-July at two to five per meter of row while averaging about one per meter over the season. They enter cotton fields as soon as prey is available and remain throughout the growing season. Both adults and nymphs feed on mites, whiteflies, thrips, Lygus bugs and fleahoppers while consuming about two bollworm or tobacco budworm eggs per day under field conditions. They also may feed on up to one small bollworm or tobacco budworm larva per day. They readily feed on various seeds and suck plant juices but are not considered harmful to the plant.
Reproduction takes place in the cotton field. Nymphs of G. punctipes are gray while G.uliginosus nymphs are solid black.
Many species of predaceous ants may be found on unsprayed
cotton in Texas. Probably the most important are the fire ants (Solenopsis
species). In areas inhabited by the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis
invicta [Buren]), this ant specie often makes up 98 percent of all ants
present. In West and South Texas where imported fire ants are not found, other
species such as the tropical fire ant (S. geminata [Fabricius]) or in
North Texas the southern fire ant (S. xyloni [McCook]) are important
predators. Worker ants, generally found in cotton fields, are about 1/8 inch
long, dark red to black, wingless and have a two-segmented waist (i.e.,
abdominal stalk).
Ants enter cotton when aphids start producing honeydew and may reach densities of 10 to 20 ants per meter of row while averaging about eight. Young queens colonize cotton fields after rains. Ant numbers usually peak in late June and again in early August. Each ant may take about 0.3 bollworm or tobacco budworm eggs and 0.1 small worms per day. Since ants can hunt in packs, they can capture rather large prey and are excellent predators of immature boll weevils. Fire ants are relatively ineffective predators of most other predaceous insects and spiders.
Lady beetles (Hippodamia spp.)
Of the many large lady beetles found in cotton, the most
numerous and effective is the convergent lady beetle (Hippodamia
convergens [Guerin-Meneville]). The adult generally is orange with 12 black
spots on the wing covers (elytra). The orange and black larva also is
predaceous. Lady beetle populations are related to aphid numbers, so lady
beetles are most abundant when aphid populations are high.
Although large lady beetles are not as abundant as some of the other predators, they apparently find and eat more bollworm-budworm eggs per individual. Under field conditions they are capable of finding and eating about 12 eggs per day. They also attack small-to-medium bollworm or budworm larvae.
Cotton fleahoppers (Pseudatomoscelis seriatus [Reuter])
This insect is considered an important cotton pest
because its feeding causes small squares to shed. However, the fleahopper also
should be considered a predator on bollworm or tobacco budworm eggs. Under field
conditions the fleahopper may eat about one bollworm or tobacco budworm egg per
day.
Fleahopper adults enter the cotton field when plants are very small. As an example in East Texas, their numbers peak in May or June and again in September. In some locations they may average about seven adults and nymphs per meter with peaks of 20 per meter. Since fleahoppers generally are considered pests only on preflowering cotton, they might be considered beneficial after flowering. Both adults and nymphs are predaceous but also serve as food for many other predators.
Green lacewings (Chrysopa spp.)
Although many species of green lacewings are present in
cotton fields, the most abundant are the common green lacewing (Chrysopa
carnea [Stephens]) and the green lacewing (Chrysopa rufilabris
[Burmeister]). Adults are about ½ to 3/4 inch long, and are yellowish-green with
golden eyes and large, delicate, netted wings. The larvae grow to a maximum
length of 3/8 inch, are alligator-shaped, have long sickle-shaped jaws and are
mottled brown. Eggs are deposited on the end of long delicate stalks.
In East Texas green lacewings peak during mid-July at about one per meter of row, averaging one per 5 meters. Green lacewings often are more abundant in central and western parts of Texas. Movement begins in February or March, reaching a spring peak in May and a fall peak in September.
Common green lacewing adults are not predaceous, but the immatures feed on aphids, spider mites, whiteflies and bollworm or tobacco budworm larvae and may consume about one egg or small worm every 2 days.
Several species of damsel bugs are found on Texas cotton.
One of the most abundant species is the pale damsel bug (Nabis
capsiformis [Germar]). Adult damsel bugs are slender with relatively long
legs. They range from about 3/8 to ½ inch long and are tan to reddish-brown. The
body tapers toward the head which is armed with a long beak. Damsel bug nymphs
resemble adults but are smaller and lack wings.
In East Texas, damsel bugs usually are found at densities of less than one per 10 meters of row with occasional peaks of about two per meter between mid-June and mid-August. However, in some years and in some areas they reach densities of up to 10 per meter.
Damsel bugs feed on bollworm-budworm eggs and larvae as well as aphids, fleahoppers, Lygus bugs, leafhoppers and spider mites. They also prey on other predators such as minute pirate bugs and bigeyed bugs.
Assassin bugs (Zelus and Sinea spp.)
The most abundant assassin bugs in cotton are the
leafhopper assassin bug (Zelus renardii [Kolenati]) and the spined
assassin bug (Sinea diadema [Fabricius]). The leafhopper assassin bug
adults are about ½ inch long and of moderate to slender build. They are various
colors including red, brown and yellowish green. The elongated narrow head is
armed with a strong beak. The nymph resembles the adult but is smaller and
wingless.
The spined assassin bug also is about ½ inch long and is almost uniformly dark brown to dull reddish brown. Abdomen margins are expanded and flat with a pale spot on the rear margin of each segment. The front legs are covered with spines. Nymphs resemble the adults but are wingless and distinctly sway-backed.
Assassin bugs peak at about one per 2 meters of row during July but average only seven per 100 meters during the season. Dispersal reaches a peak during the fall. They are predators of cotton fleahoppers and bollworm-budworm eggs and larvae and are one of the few predators that can readily capture and consume an adult boll weevil, as well as larger Heliothis larvae.
Spiders are important in regulating pest insects but are not numerous enough to control excessive numbers that occur during major outbreaks. Along with other mortality agents, spiders often keep pests below densities that cause unacceptable cotton losses.
Striped lynx (Oxyopes salticus [Hentz])
The striped Lynx is a hunting spider and builds no web.
It can be identified in the field by its habit of running rapidly and
erratically and jumping. It is a brownish colored spider about 1/4 to 3/8 inch
long with four longitudinal grey stripes behind the eyes on the front half (the
carapace). Two black lines extend down the face and the jaws (chelicerae). Legs
have large spines and the abdomen tapers to a point. Immatures resemble adults
but are smaller.
This spider usually is the most abundant spider in East Texas cotton fields, averaging more than one per 2 meters of row with peaks of two per meter. Numbers of striped Lynx build throughout the growing season, peaking in September. They reproduce throughout the growing season so immature spiders are moving into cotton fields almost continuously. Immatures often are abundant on green vegetation during the winter.
The striped Lynx preys on cotton fleahoppers, Lygus bugs and small bollworm-budworm larvae.They do not readily prey on bollworm-budworm eggs, but in Arkansas they account for 11 to 14 percent of all arthropod predation on second-instar bollworm larvae. They may consume about one egg or small larva every 2 days.
Celer crab spider (Misumenops celer [Hentz])
The celer crab spider is also a hunting spider, does not
weave a web and usually is found in plant terminals. The four front legs are
longer than the four rear legs, and there usually are two longitudinal stripes
behind the eyes on the carapace. Also, the rear half of the abdomen often has a
"V" shaped mark pointing toward the rear. Adults reach a length of about 1/4
inch. They are yellow, green or white with reddish markings. Immature stages
resemble adults but are smaller. These crab spiders enter the cotton field early
but reach a peak density of about one per meter of row in October and November
in East Texas. The seasonal average density is about one per 10 meters of row.
Celer crab spiders feed on cotton fleahoppers, Lygus bugs and a wide range of other insects, including bollworm-budworm eggs and worms; they may consume about one egg every 2 days and one worm per day.
Winter spider (Chiracanthium inclusum [Hentz])
The winter spider is found during the day in silken nests
under leaves or bracts of squares. These hunting spiders do not spin a typical
web and hunt primarily at night. The adult is about 1/3 inch long and cream to
pale green with dark brown chelicerae. A faint, median longitudinal band is
found on the front half of the abdomen. Young spiders resemble the adults.
Peak numbers of up to one per meter of row may be found during July and August. Average densities of about one per 10 meters are found throughout the season. Immatures float through the air on webs (ballooning) from March to December but most commonly from August through November.
Immatures of the winter spider feed on bollworm-budworm eggs, possibly taking 14 per day when eggs are abundant. A second instar winter spider consumes an average of 3 ½ first instar bollworms in I ½ hours in the laboratory and about three per day in the field. They prefer bollworms and other species of worms and flies but also eat bugs, grasshoppers and beetles.
Star-bellied orb weaver (Acanthepeira stellata [Walckenaer])
Large webs spun between cotton rows often are made by the
star-bellied orb weaver, frequently the most abundant web-spinner in cotton.
When the web is found, the spider may be located under a leaf to which one of
the foundation lines of the web has been
attached. One of its legs touches the line to alert the spider when prey is caught in the web.
Identification is relatively simple because of the characteristic star-shape of the abdomen formed by a series of cone-like bumps (protuberances). The spider is brown with a white spot on the anterior portion of the abdomen. Adults reach a length of about 3/8 inch. Adults and immatures differ only in size.
Numbers generally increase as the season progresses, reaching a peak in August and September when large numbers of immatures cover the countryside. Densities in cotton fields average about one per 10 meters of row but peak at one per 2 meters.
The star-bellied orb weaver does not hunt its prey but waits for prey to get caught in its web. Thus, it is likely that most of its prey fly or jump into the web. Adult fleahoppers, bollworm-budworm moths, bigeyed bugs, pirate bugs, damsel bugs and honeybees are frequent prey of this spider. There is no evidence that this spider feeds on bollworm or budworm eggs under field conditions, but it may consume one small larva every 2 days.
Grey dotted spider (Aysha gracilis [Hentz])
This spider is very similar in behavior and appearance to
the winter spider. It is a night hunter and spends the day in a silken nest
under leaves or bracts of squares. The adult is about 1/4 inch long and yellow
with a darker anterior end and brown jaws (chelicerae). A pair of longitudinal
grey bands is found on the back (carapace) between the eyes and the abdomen, and
reddish-brown to black spots form two indistinct longitudinal bands on the
abdomen. The legs are covered with spines; this helps distinguish it from the
winter spider which has smaller and less distinct spines on the legs. Immatures
resemble adults but markings are paler.
Peak numbers occur during August or September when one per 2 meters of row may be present. Usually fewer than one per 10 meters are found.
Little is known of its feeding habits in cotton, but it preys on about one bollworm-budworm egg every 10 days and one small worm every 2 days. Otherwise its prey is similar to that of the winter spider.
Black and white jumping spider (Phidippus audax [Hentz])
Common around homes and gardens, this spider hunts in the
daytime and often is seen on window screens. It is common in cotton. Its black
color is contrasted with three white spots on the abdomen of adults. These spots
are reddish-orange on the immatures which also have reddish legs. Adults may
reach ½ inch in length and have large eyes on the front of the head. When
attacking, they crawl to within striking distance and jump on their prey.
This spider generally increases its numbers throughout the season reaching a peak of about one per meter of row in August. Average density is about one per 10 meters of row.
Immature spiders feed on bollworm-budworm eggs and may eat five per day. This spider can capture and eat all larval stages of the bollworm-budworm; larger larvae are taken by the larger spiders. Under field conditions they may each eat about one worm every 2 days. Even boll weevil adults and bollworm-budworm moths are attacked. Immature spiders capture and consume fleahoppers, Lygus bugs and pink bollworm adults.
Long jawed orb weaver (Tetragnatha laboriosa [Hentz])
This elongated spider, less than 1/4 inch long, uses a
web placed between branches of the cotton plant or between rows to catch its
prey. Males have long jaws (chelicerae) from which this species gets its name.
They are light yellow with a silvery abdomen. This spider often is found in the
center of its web, which has an open hub.
A peak of about one per meter of row occurs in August with an average density of about one per 5 meters of row.
Feeding habits of this spider are not fully known, although they feed mostly on flying insects caught in their webs such as fleahoppers, leafhoppers and small moths.
Ridgefaced crab spider (Misumenoides formosipes [Walckenaer])
This crab spider is a hunter that usually waits in ambush
for its prey in the terminal of the cotton plant. It can change color to match
its background but is generally creamy-white to yellow or yellowish-brown with
slightly darker sides. The abdomen may be unmarked or it may have red or brown
markings that form a "V" pointing to the head. A white ridge crosses the face
under the eyes.
An average density of only about one per 100 meters has been observed in May, although peaks of up to one per 10 meters have been observed. This spider feeds on fleahoppers and bollworm-budworm larvae and perhaps other insects.
Current research in East Texas indicates that if any combination of the 16 predators discussed in this publication is found in the cotton field in numbers qual to or greater than bollworm-tobacco budworm eggs, insecticides usually are not needed. For example, if an average of 10 eggs and 10 predators are counted per meter of row, no insecticide is needed. Use caution during rainy weather when the predation level may decrease. However, if the rains do not continue more than I or 2 days, the predators may recover and prevent unacceptable losses.
Careful sampling of these predators is as important as
sampling pests. Thus, securing the services of a well-trained field scout or
consultant is a good investment. Farmers can also easily learn to do this
themselves. A "beat-bucket" sampler is recommended as a simple and efficient
tool for sampling predators and some pests. To make one, cut the bottom 10
inches from a white or light-colored S-gallon plastic bucket. To use the
sampler, place the top 10 inches of the cotton plant inside the bucket and give
five separate, rapid shakes from side to side. Then even the smallest predators
can be counted in the bottom of the bucket.
INSECT PARASITISM OF COTTON PESTS
Allen Knutson and G.T. Bohmfalk
All animals and plants, including insects, have natural enemies that attack their various life stages. These natural enemies are what help keep explosive pest outbreaks from occurring. Important natural enemies of cotton pests include insect parasites.
A parasite is an organism that lives in or on another usually larger organism. Parasites of insects, termed parasitoids, are a special group of parasites since they kill their host. An insect parasite requires only one host to develop to the adult stage, which is free living.
Insect parasites feed internally or externally on their hosts. An external larval parasite (Euplectrus hircinus [Say]) is seen parasitizing a bollworm larva. The host may become paralyzed before it dies from the parasite's feeding. Insect parasites may attack any life stage oftheir host, but most parasitize the egg or larval stage. Egg and larval parasites lay their egg in a host egg or larva. The parasite egg hatches into a larva that kills the host egg or larva. Some insect parasites lay an egg in the host egg, larval or pupal stage, and the parasite finally kills a later stage (larva, pupa or adult).
 |
 |
Tiny wasps called Trichogramma are typical insect parasites. This
wasp parasitizes bollworm and budworm eggs. The adult female wasp deposits her
egg inside the bollworm egg. The wasp's egg hatches into a larva which feeds in
the bollworm's egg. The full grown Trichogramma larva transforms into
the adult wasp which escapes from the dead bollworm egg. The female wasp mates
and flies in search of other bollworm eggs to parasitize, thus repeating the
life cycle. Trichogramma also parasitizes other moth eggs. 
In addition to Trichogramma wasps, bollworms and tobacco budworm larvae often areparasitized by other fly and wasp species. Many insecticides applied to cotton destroy insect parasites, which may result in economic infestations of bollworms, budworms or other cotton pests. The boll weevil, in contrast, has relatively few effective natural enemies, which explains in part why it is such a devastating pest.
Most parasites are so small and secretive they are seldom seen and their benefit is not always evident. Other parasites, including tachinid flies, braconid wasps and ichneumonid wasps, are larger and more often seen. Parasitic insects are valuable allies in keeping cotton pest populations below damaging levels.
Recognizing the value of parasitic insects and preserving natural enemies
whenever possible is an important component of cotton integrated pest
management.
R.B. Metzer
The cotton plant usually is considered an annual, although it is a perennial in some parts of the world where it is grown commercially. The woody, herbaceous plant has a long tap root and attains a height of 2 to 5 feet or taller under favorable conditions. Cotton grows best with high temperatures and adequate soil moisture and fertility. Air temperatures in the 90° to 95° F. range are considered optimum for growth. Little or no growth can be expected at 60° F. or below. Temperatures in excess of 100° F. for several days can be unfavorable, especially if soil moisture becomes deficient. The tap root grows downward into moist soil at a rate of about 1 inch per day for 5 weeks or longer. During the growing season the daily growth rate of roots may average ½ inch.
When cotton emerges, the first leaf structures are called cotyledonary or seed leaves. They appear on the lowest node and are borne on opposite sides of the main stem. The nodes above the seed leaves bear a single true leaf. These leaves have a spiral arrangement around the stem. The true leaves have five or more clearly defined lobes. At the base of each main stem leaf, in the angle between the leaf and the stem, there are two and sometimes three buds. They are called axillary buds and give rise to the vegetative and fruiting branches. The vegetative branches normally are restricted to the lower nodes on the stem. In most American upland cottons the first fruiting branch begins developing at the fifth or sixth node above the seedling leaves. The fruiting branches produce floral buds, called cotton squares that develop into bolls. Flowers (blooms) are creamy white when first open. Fertilization occurs on day that flowers open; it turns pink the day after anthesis. Then boll development begins. The interval between corresponding nodes on successive fruiting branches (vertical flowering interval) is 2 to 3 days, and the interval between successive flowers on the same fruiting branch (horizontal fruiting interval) is 5 to 6 days.
Flowering usually begins about 7 to 11 weeks after planting. Determinate varieties stop growing after boll development. In contrast, indeterminate varieties usually are late-maturing and continue flowering until stopped by frost, drought, insect attack or some other cause. The flower bud or square usually is discernible 3 to 4 weeks before the flower opens. Many of the buds, squares, flowers or young bolls drop off naturally. This is called shedding. As a result, it is estimated that only 35 to 40 percent of the squares produce mature bolls under normal conditions. The most critical time for developing fruit is 3 to 10 days after pollination. The period between flowering and opening of mature bolls is 6 to 8 weeks, depending on growing conditions. Cloudy conditions and below normal temperatures during this period can increase the boll maturation period.
Fruit of the cotton plant is the enlarged 3- to 5-loculed ovary commonly referred to as a cotton boll. Mature bolls vary in size and shape depending on the variety and environmental conditions but usually are 1 1/2 to 2 inches in diameter. Bolls set during the first 3 weeks of fruiting usually are the largest and contain the highest quality fiber. Normally, late set bolls are smaller and may contain finer and less mature fiber, depending on temperature and moisture levels during the boll maturation period. Normally, 65 to 90 bolls are required to produce a pound of seed cotton. However, some varieties produce relatively small bolls that may require 100 bolls or more to produce a pound of seed cotton.
Fiber length development is determined the first 3 weeks after flowering. Increase in micronaire value as well as fiber strength occurs during the next 3- to 4-week period after length is established. Moisture stress during the first 3 weeks after flowering can restrict fiber length. Adequate temperature is a critical factor in determining the strength and maturity of lint.
The cotton plant can adapt to different environmental stresses. In a severe drought, the plant may be only 6 inches high but still capable of producing several bolls. A plant of the same variety grown under adequate moisture or irrigation may be 5 feet in height and produce 40 to 50 bolls. Depending on other stresses, the number of bolls that develop is kept in balance with the vegetative growth of the plant. The fruiting-vegetative balance is affected by several factors. A shift to vegetative growth is associated with excessive nitrogen and soil moisture, coupled with cool, cloudy conditions. This shift is intensified even further if initial fruit set is poor or if excessive shedding has taken place. Warm, sunny weather and adequate but not excessive moisture and nitrogen and little insect stress encourage fruiting.
A population of 30,000 to 65,000 plants per acre is the optimum range for maximum yields. Although the cotton plant can adjust to variable spacing, uniform distribution of plants in the row produces the highest yields. A uniform plant spacing produces the highest yields. Under dryland conditions a plant population in the lower range is desirable, especially in low rainfall areas.
Cottonseed are frequently planted at rates higher than necessary to achieve adequate stands. A dense stand results in crowding in the drill-row. High plant population encourages fruit set at a higher position on the plant, which contributes to delayed maturity. Severe crowding can result in barren plants that function as weeds because they compete for moisture and nutrients. Barren plants usually are taller and are therefore more susceptible to lodging.
The time required for specific growth and development stages in the cotton
plant is influenced primarily by planting date, variety, available moisture and
temperature during the fruiting period. Other factors such as soil type and the
level of insect, weed and disease pressure also can alter the time required to
reach various growth and fruiting stages. Some important growth and fruiting
variables of the cotton plant are presented below:
| Planting to emergence | 4 to 10 days |
| Emergence to first true leaf | 8 days |
| Emergence to second true leaf | 9 days |
| Second true leaf to pinhead square (seventh node) | 18 to 21 days |
| Pinhead square to matchhead square | 9 to 10 days |
| Matchhead square to first one-third grown square | 3 to 6 days |
| First one-third grown square to first white bloom | 12 to 16 days |
| First white bloom to first open bolls | 40 to 60 days |
| Harvest bolls set first 4 weeks of blooming | 96% |
| Percent blooms that make bolls | 35 to 40 % |
Most fruit is set in the first 3 to 4 weeks of blooming. Squares are more
easily shed than bolls. Once bolls are 12 days old or older, they usually will
not shed unless the plant suffers severe stress (temperature, moisture, insects
or disease).
G.T. Bohmfalk
Integrated pest management evolved as several control techniques in harmony to keep pests below damaging levels. Experience shows that it is better to manage pests by using multiple suppression tactics rather than a single one. This includes using natural controls such as predators, parasites and pathogens and cultural strategies in combination with well timed insecticide applications in an integrated approach. Along with the development of this multitactic management system is an increased awareness of "in-field" insect and plant dynamics. This awareness is a result of constant crop monitoring of pests and beneficial insects and their effects on the cotton plant. This is the basis of cotton scouting.
Cotton scouting, or crop monitoring, is not a suppression tool itself but
rather a means of gathering information on pests which will aid in management
decisions. There is more to cotton monitoring than just checking for insects. It
involves proper identification, a determination of pest and beneficial insect
densities and their effects on the cotton crop as a whole. Insect numbers
fluctuate a great deal. In cotton fields pests can increase to a point where, if
not suppressed, they will cause economic damage to the crop. This pest density
is called an economic threshold and is illustrated in figure 3.
The economic threshold is determined by research and practical experience. It has been approximated for most cotton pests but may vary with the area in which the crop is grown. For current information on the economic thresholds of cotton pests in your area, contact an Extension entomologist or your county Extension agent or refer to the Management of Cotton Insects series appropriate for your region.
Since evaluating the economic threshold involves observing a pest population
that is truly dynamic and rises and falls periodically, there must be some
method of systematic sampling on a regular basis. Sampling in cotton usually is
done once or twice a week. Sampling results should be recorded in an
easy-to-understand method (figure 4). Frequently, during peak insect activity,
fields must be scouted or monitored more than twice a week. It is also critical
to monitor the effects of other factors such as weather, disease, herbicidal
injury, etc.
Insect populations often are concentrated in certain areas of a field.
Insects are not distributed uniformly in the field and do not infest all fields
in an area. Large areas of the field must be covered each time. Scouting aids in
determining the kinds of insects present, their location, relative abundance and
distribution in the field and numbers of insects or amount of insect damage to
the plants. Scouting only near turn rows and field margins is inadequate for
determining insect infestation. To cover the field completely, walk a field in a
"zigzag" pattern crossing it diagonally from one corner to another or walk it
in-a wide arc taking samples from several plants (figure 5). The pattern
followed should allow adequate sampling throughout the field, including the
center, the sides and corners. Sampling pattern should be determined by the
shape and size of the field. Avoid sampling in the same area of the field on
successive sampling days.
The numbers and kinds of insects in a field usually are determined with reasonable reliability by examining squares and leaves from the terminal or entire plant or by sweeping the top part of a plant. Samples also may include any insects in the blooms, the rate at which squares are being set. the blooming rate. observable damage to bolls and the growth rate of plants. Determine any "natural" excessive square or boll shed when making an evaluation. Remember to consider the effect the weather has on the crop when evaluating fruit loss.
The part of the plant examined in a sample varies with the insect pest being sampled. Many insect infestations are assessed by taking "square" samples and determining the percent damaged by the particular insect. Other insects may be found primarily on terminal buds, so the terminal may be the best sampling unit. Taking leaf samples and counting the number of insects present or the amount of leaf damage provide infestation information for many leaf-feeding species. Sample plant bugs and other insects by using an insect sweep net. Black light traps and pheromone traps are survey tools useful for estimating the relative density of some insects in the area.
Take samples or count samples from the bottom, middle and top portions of the plants. Taking all the samples from the top can give an inaccurate count and let insect infestations concentrated on the lower parts of the plants go undetected. This is especially true for bollworms and tobacco budworms and their eggs, which are sometimes laid lower on plants in the hotter part of the season.
The number of samples taken when scouting a field usually is dictated by
field size and field variability. In fields of 40 acres or less, usually only
two samples are made. A single sample should consist of examining at least 25
individual plants at random or all plants in a predetermined length of row (6.5
feet or 13 feet) at each site. Make a record of pests, beneficials and plant
damage. The data from all samples are totaled or averaged for the field. The
number of samples should increase as the field size increases. Fields between 40
and 100 acres usually have four samples taken. In fields exceeding 100 acres, a
sample is added for every additional 50 acres. For specific sampling
instructions refer to the Management of Cotton Insect series for your region.
MONITORING COTTON FRUITING RATE
Monitoring the cotton fruiting rate is an excellent indicator of the growth and maturity of the cotton plant. Usually problem fields are detected promptly if fruiting rates are monitored accurately. Early fruiting is a desirable quality and frequent monitoring gives a good indication of crop set. To monitor fruiting rates, mark a point on a row and count 100 consecutive one-third grown (1/4 inch in diameter) or larger green squares. Record the number of row feet required to gain that count. One-third grown squares are preferred feeding- and egg-laying sites for boll weevils. This general square size also is preferred by bollworms/tobacco budworms; thus, it is a key indicator of potential damage. Also record the number of bolls observed in this distance. Later in the season, when squares are few, count 100 bolls, both green and open, and record the number of row feet required to make the count. To estimate the number of squares or bolls present per acre, divide the number of row feet required to gain a count of 100 squares or bolls into the number of row feet per acre (13,068 running row feet for 40-inch rows and 13,756 running row feet for 38-inch rows) and multiply by 100.
Bolls or squares per acre = 13,068 (or 13,756) X 100 Number row feet recorded for 100 consecutive bolls or squares
R.E. Frisbie and G.T. Bohmfalk
The decision to control cotton insects and mites with insecticides should be made with care. Use insecticides only if the economic threshold has been reached, based on insect scouting results, the stage of plant growth and rate of fruit production. With the exception of a few microbial insecticides, insecticide applications typically depress beneficial (predator and parasite) populations that are important natural control agents. Low rates of certain insecticides such as ovicides have been less damaging to beneficial populations. Insecticidal control of one pest often affects the beneficial population suppressing another pest. The most frequent example is an insecticide applied near or at the bloom stage for boll weevil, which destroys beneficial insects that help keep the bollworm-tobacco budworm in check.
The growth stage of the cotton plant, in relation to its vulnerability to
insect attack, is important to consider. One may view these susceptibility
periods as "windows" in crop growth. Figure 6 illustrates these windows and
their relationship, in time, with the plants growth stages. For example, the
window for the cotton fleahopper is from pinhead size square through one-third
grown square. After this period the cotton fleahopper usually does not have the
potential to inflict damage. Windows of key pests may overlap and make decisions
more difficult and risky. The best example of this is, again, with the boll
weevil and the bollworm-tobacco budworm complex. The window for the boll weevil
begins at one-third grown square and generally ends when a boll reaches 10 to 12
days of age. The window for the bollworm-tobacco budworm begins around the
one-third grown square stage and extends past and overlaps with the boll weevil
window.
Research shows that the most critical period of fruit formation is in the first 30 to 40 days of blooming. The highest quality and quantity of lint is produced at this time. Thus, damage inflicted in this window can be most costly. Strategies in cotton insect management show that the boll weevil can be managed effectively in various parts of the state by altering the planting date, if practiced uniformly, or by selected insecticide applications early in the boll weevil window (first one-third grown square stage), based on field scouting information. Either of these strategies, if properly practiced in most years, neutralizes the boll weevil as a pest, allows theplant to set and hold early fruit and delays boll weevil build-up until the critical 30 to 40 days of blooming can take place. Of equal importance, this strategy has little effect on beneficials that naturally control bollworm-tobacco budworm populations.
By viewing growth of the cotton plant as a series of susceptibility windows,
management decisions and scouting information can be targeted to deal with the
specific major pests attacking cotton. By considering the pest within a certain
window (time-frame), its damage can be assessed relative to the growth stage and
its potential to destroy harvestable fruit.
OTHER INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
A field sterile of all pest insects is neither necessary nor desirable. However, do not allow harmful insects to reach numbers that will cause unacceptable losses. Keep them below the economic threshold. Excessive use of nitrogen fertilizer causes cotton plants to stay green and stimulates rank growth. The excessive, rank growth can reduce cotton yield and increase damage from the bollworm-tobacco budworm. Rank growth also makes it difficult to achieve thorough plant coverage with insecticides.
Cotton planted too thick becomes tall and "leggy" before it sets squares. This condition is often wrongly blamed on cotton fleahoppers. Maximum yields are produced when cotton is planted at a rate of two to four plants per foot of row on 40-inch rows. Current research in this area on narrow row spacings is being evaluated for use by cotton producers in various production areas.
Foliage and fruit on cotton stalks remaining in a field after harvest can supply a food source for boll weevils, bollworms, tobacco budworms and pink bollworms that allows these pests to continue growing and reproducing. This increases the number of overwintering pests. Cut stalks and plow fields immediately after the cotton is picked or stripped.
By planting cotton at a uniform time throughout an area, many problems with
boll weevils, bollworms and tobacco budworms and pink bollworms can be reduced
greatly. These insect pests are attracted to the older cotton plants of early
planted cotton. Late season damage by bollworm-tobacco budworm often is greater
on later planted cotton which remains green and lush longer than earlier planted
cotton. Later planted cotton also may have more squares which aid in the
development of high numbers of boll weevils.
G.T. Bohmfalk
This simple key is designed to help the producer diagnose damage caused by insects and spider mites. Although it is pest-oriented, cues are provided to aid in separating pest identification from beneficial identification. Extension entomologists can assist with identifications .
| Symptom | Suspected insect |
|---|---|
| Seeds | |
| Seeds eaten, resulting in poor stand | Fire ant or seed-gathering ant (not common) |
| Seeds hollowed out | Wireworms (not common) |
| Seedling | |
| Stems cut off evenly at or near ground level; chewed at base | Cutworms Grasshoppers |
| Cotyledons and first rue leaves deformed or "cupped downward" with honeydew present | Aphids or whiteflies (Whiteflies may not deform leaves but honeydew is present.) |
| Cotyledons and first true leaves deformed, "cupped upward" with no honey dew but with a silvered appearance | Thrips |
| Ragged holes eaten in leaves | Armyworms Cabbage looper (grasshoppers) |
| Symptom | Suspected Insect |
|---|---|
| Leaves | |
| Discolored, reddened or "mottled" some slight webbing obvious on underside |
Spider mite |
| With "shot-hole" appearance; mining and horseshoe-shaped larvae present |
Cotton leaf perforator |
| Skeletonized with numerous small larvae present | Armyworms |
| Numerous large holes and feeding on margin | Cabbage looper or grasshoper |
| Ragged and completely eaten with "woolybear" caterpillars present |
Saltmarsh caterpillar |
| Rolled with webbing present | Omnivorous leaf roller |
| Squares Blackened or "blasted" |
Lygus bugs Cotton fleahopper |
| Eaten into with frass present, hole circular and square may be hollowed out |
Bollworm and/or tobacco budworm |
| Eaten into with clean feeding site hole slightly flattened and square not completely hollowed out |
Cotton square borer |
| Bracts primarily fed on | Beet armyworm |
| Tiny feeding sites with bright orange to yellow excrement present; small wart-like, egg-laying sites |
Boll weevil |
| Blooms | |
| Holes in base | Armyworms Bollworm and/or tobacco budworm |
| Rosetted petals | Pink bollworm |
| Disfigured, twisted and coarse | Lygus (plant) bug, cotton fleahopper or stink bug |
| Terminal Tunneling in terminal |
Bollworm-budworm, fall armyworm or omnivorous leaf roller |
| Symptom | Suspected Insect |
|---|---|
| Bolls | |
| Holes with frass present; hole circular | Bollworm and/or tobacco budworm Beet armyworm Fall armyworm |
| Tiny holes with some yellow to bright orange frass and wart-like, egg laying sites |
Boll weevil |
| Small depressions and "cat-facing" | Lygus bug Stink bug |
| Holes through boll, carpel walls and seeds | Pink bollworm |
| Soft, dark area with cream colored grub inside boll |
Boll weevil |
| Symptom | Suspect Insect |
|---|---|
| Occurring singly | |
| White to tan, eventually turning brown, spherical with lines from base to tip, usually in terminal areas or underside of tender young leaves and on stems |
Bollworm and/or tobacco budworm |
| Slightly flat, greenish-white, laid on leaf surface Blue-green, flat and laid singly over leaves |
Cabbage looper |
| White or green supported by a silken stalk |
Lacewing |
| White, oblong, lays on side on leaves and stems |
Bigeyed bugs |
| Silken bag attached to plant | Spiders |
| White, oval, flattened, somewhat donut- shaped, surface covered with net-like lines |
Cotton square borer |
| Occurring in groups | |
| Pale green covered with scales and usually deposited on underside of leaves |
Armyworms |
| Blue-green, flat and overlapping like shingles usually on upperside of leaves |
Omnivorous leaf roller |
| Brownish, "barrel-shaped," tightly packed |
Stink bugs |
| Orange, shiny and cigar-shaped with few in cluster |
Lady beetle |
| Symptom | Suspect Insect |
|---|---|
| Found outside of bolls or squares | |
| Large, covered with dense yellow to brown hair |
Saltmarsh caterpillar |
| Body with no hair, head capsule smaller than distal end, pale green, moves with looping action |
Cabbage looper |
| Body having sparse hairs or spines; may be striped with mottled head capsule |
Bollworm and/or tobacco budworm |
| Green with a tiny black spot above second true leg; without even small hairs |
Beet armyworm |
| Black to dark green with yellow and brown stripes |
Yellowstriped armyworm |
| Brown with dark patches on the sides; plae to white inverted "Y" on face of head capsule; body sparsely covered with short, dark hairs |
Fall armyworm |
| "Football-shaped" with dense, velvet hair covering, bright green to yellow |
Cotton square borer |
| Smooth, olive green with white spots on each segment; darkened head; slender worm often found rolled in cotton leaves |
Omnivorous leaf roller |
| Tiny, white to dark green, marked with darkened areas, foundwithin the leaf itself or on the surface |
Cotton leaf- perforator |
| "C"-shaped, variable in color, in or on the soil surface; "C"-shaped when disturbed |
Cutworms |
| Found only inside bolls or squares | |
| Small whitish or pink larva inside maturing boll |
Pink bollworm |
| Small, grub-like larvar found in squares or developing bolls |
Boll weevil |
Electronic Revision, 2011
ENT
Return
to top of page
Return
to Departmental Home Page